"Beaver Pond Wildlife Part 5" film in Simsbury, CT

This Thursday, November 9, 2023, we will be screening Part 5 ("Fall to Winter") of the Beaver Pond Wildlife film series at the Grange Hall in West Simsbury, CT. This event is the last in a 5-part series of films spanning a year's time at typical New England beaver ponds, which showcases the great array of wild animal and plant life found in this habitat. 

The films are scheduled to coincide with what you can expect to see at northeastern beaver ponds at that time of the year. Each contains at least a few scenes that probably most people have never witnessed in the wild.

 

In Part 5, we'll see the dramatic change of colors from summer greens to autumn's fiery reds and glowing golds, as the bounty of summer quickly wanes. All wildlife is now focused on the priority of surviving the coming winter. Some have migrated to warmer climes, or soon will be. Some are preparing to hibernate. Others are stockpiling as much food as they can to ensure they'll have enough to survive until spring. 

Some of the scenes we'll see include: 

-birds such as hawks and falcons, bluebirds, chickadees, cedar waxwings, and others, dealing with the first snowfall;

-beavers in their ice-covered pond, harvesting trees, working on lodges and food caches.

-otters in the snow, and eating fish on the ice; 

-a muskrat finding food, on and below the ice; 

-actual sounds of beavers vocalizing in an icy lodge;

-the history of our beaver populations; 

-the overall ecology of beaver pond habitats, and the benefits they provide to a wide range of plant and animal species;

-and so much more!

The program will be held at the Simsbury Grange hall, 236 Farms Village Rd, W. Simsbury, CT.   

Doors open at 6pm for socializing and snacks, and the film begins at 7pm. As always, there will be a Q&A session following the film.

Admission is free, but donations are appreciated.

Pre-register at the Simsbury Library website.

 

 

 

 

 

Reading the Forested Landscape film screening

 

 

 

We central New Englanders are quite accustomed to seeing stone fences all throughout our forests. But why? Who built the estimated 125,000 miles of stone fences we have here? When were they built? For what purpose? 

 

Have you ever noticed trees "standing on tiptoes" in the forest, and wondered how and why they grew like that? Have you seen trees growing on peculiar mounds of dirt in the woods? 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A walk in the forest benefits us in many ways, physically and spiritually. But it can be so much more enjoyable when we can interpret and understand more of what we see.

Why do some white pine trees have a straight, single trunk, while many others have multiple, forking trunks? 

Why is the ground in some forests relatively smooth, and in others it's pock-marked with many depressions and bumps?

Can we determine whether a forest was logged in the past? Whether it was burned? Can we tell if and when a hurricane affected it? Or a strong thunderstorm?

What might tell you if a woodland was once a pasture, or other agricultural field?

These questions and many, many more will be answered in the "Reading the Forested Landscape" film to be presented in Newtown, CT.

Noted ecologist and author Tom Wessels is featured in the film, which parallels his book of the same title. Tom is the go-to expert on interpreting why our New England forests look like they do today. Those who participate in one of Tom's forest walks are invariably impressed with his skills, and excitedly look forward to their next opportunity to apply what they've learned. If you love forests, you'll appreciate Tom's knowledge, and his ability to pass it along.

Preceding the main feature, we will show a short film entitled "My Forest Has Worms", which describes the highly destructive nature of what most of us have always believed were beneficial creatures... earthworms! In northern states, where glaciers once covered the land, there are no native earthworms that survived the glaciers. A sad surprise: those big, fat nightcrawlers we see in our lawns and gardens are non-native, invasive species that are destroying New England's forests!

Following the films, we will host a Q&A session.

The evening's program, sponsored by the Newtown Earth Day organization, will be held at the Edmond Town Hall in Newtown, CT, at 7pm on Thursday evening, October 19, 2023. Come early... light refreshments will be available, and the event is free and open to the public. Hope to see you there!

Plants That Cheat - a new film

We're all very familiar with green plants, from the lawns, gardens, shrubs, and trees that surround us, to the vegetables we eat. In school we learned the basics of photosynthesis... that plants somehow magically grow as long as they get adequate sunlight, water, and nutrients from the medium they're growing in.

 

Sunlight, water, and green plants

 

The oceans are huge gardens of green plants, in the form of seaweed. And of course forests are what we usually think of when talking about terrestrial plant life. 

Those plants... they all absorb sunlight and make their own food; they're all so self-sufficient. Or are they? 

Many, many millions of years ago, the roots of some plants evolved the ability to bypass the normal function of absorbing water and minerals from the soil. Instead, they began to penetrate the roots of other plants and steal from them. They tapped into the xylem, those vessels that conduct water and dissolved minerals from roots to leaves. This meant they didn't have to build as large a root system of their own, they could just take advantage of another plant's existing root system. 

Thus, they became parasites. They were cheating. They still photosynthesized their own carbohydrate food, since they still had green, chlorophyll-containing leaves. But life became less of a challenge once they could steal water and minerals. They're called hemiparasites, since they steal part of their needs, but not all.

Small-flowered False Foxglove (Agalinis paupercula)

 

 

 

 

 

For unknown reasons, parasitic plants disappeared, and others later appeared. That has happened at least a dozen times over the eons, according to what scientists have deduced. 

But that's not the end of the story. Along the way, some plants gained the ability to not only penetrate xylem vessels for water, but also the phloem vessels that send manufactured carbohydrate sugars from leaves to roots. Then they really had it made... everything they needed was being supplied by other plants! Didn't really need sunlight much anymore. For that matter, they didn't even need leaves, since they didn't have to make food! They're called holoparasites... they depend entirely on the host plants they pilfer from.

Bear corn (Conopholis americana)

In addition, there are parasitic plants that help themselves to the nutrition of other plants via the above-ground stem of their host, instead of its roots. 

And fungi, which are virtually everywhere around us, particularly in forests, are part of the story too. Mycorrhizal fungi connect to the roots of nearly all trees and other plants in the forest, creating a network of interconnected plant life. Nutrients and chemical signals are passed across the network. Some plants, known as myco-heterotrophs, get their carbohydrate needs from mycorrhizal fungi instead of manufacturing their own; so, it can be said they indirectly parasitize other living plants.

So, how does all this work, and what, if anything, do these cheaters contribute to "plant society"? 

Well, you can find some answers in our new film, "Plants That Cheat". See what happens down there underground in the root zone, and above ground in the stems, and how all of this relates to our forests and meadows. 

 

"Beaver Pond Wildlife" film at Simsbury, CT

The Simsbury Grange hall in West Simsbury, CT, is the place to be on Thursday evening, September 14, 2023. We'll be screening Beaver Pond Wildlife Part 4: Mid-Summer to Fall. This event is the fourth in a 5-part series of films showcasing the great array of wild animal and plant life found at New England's many beaver ponds. 

The films are scheduled to coincide with what you can expect to see at northeastern beaver ponds at that time of the year. Each contains at least a few scenes that probably most people have never witnessed in the wild.

 

Fledgling Osprey

 

In Part 4, osprey chicks are now fledging and taking their first flights around (and into) the pond. 

A flooding stream is trouble for the beaver family. 

A black bear discovers the beaver lodge.

Newly fledged kingfishers learn hunting skills.

And young red-shouldered hawks have left their nest and are on their first hunts.

We'll see why jewelweed is also called "touch-me-not", and how hummingbirds pollinate cardinal flowers.

Did you know North America's only strictly carnivorous butterfly is found here?

Painted and snapping turtle eggs are now hatching underground, and the tiny hatchlings struggle to emerge from their nests.

Beavers groom each other, and build their food supply for the coming winter.

And much, much more!

Find out what this creature is

 

Hatchling snapping turtle leaves nest

 

 

 

There will be a Q&A session with filmmaker Ray Asselin following each film.

Part 5 will cover fall into winter, and is scheduled for November 19. 

The events will be held at the Simsbury Grange hall, 236 Farms Village Rd, W. Simsbury, CT.  Doors open at 6:00 for socializing and snacks, and the film begins at 7. 

Admission is free, but donations are appreciated.

Pre-register at the Simsbury Library website.

 

 

 

 

 

The Salamanders of New England - New Film

 

Salamanders are some of our most mysterious amphibians. Living below ground, or underwater, they're seldom seen, if ever, by most people. Probably the most familiar is the Red Eft, that bright orange juvenile stage of the Red-spotted Newt that seems to magically appear on the forest floor during or after rains. 

 

Red Eft

Terrestrial salamanders, when they do come to the surface, are primarily nocturnal, so we don't get many opportunities to see them. The aquatic species remain just as elusive, given that few of us are spending any time in the kind of underwater worlds they inhabit.

We've spent the last year locating and filming every salamander species that calls New England home. Without the help of several biologists (herpetologists, more precisely), this would not have happened. 

Special thanks go to Alan Richmond, recently retired from a biology teaching career at UMass Amherst, who played two major roles in this production: first, he spent many days and hours guiding the way to salamander haunts; second, he labored to get some of the pertinent biology into my resistant brain. He was amazingly successful at that first task, but maybe a lot less so at the second.

Also deserving of much credit and thanks is Jacob "Jake" Kubel, Conservation Scientist for the Massachusetts Natural Heritage and Endangered Species program. Jake also was very gracious and helpful in the quest to locate species and was quite willing to share not only information, but photos and video too.

Another enthusiastic biologist who not only supplied footage, but spent several cold, rainy evenings leading us through dark swamplands in search of Blue-spotted salamanders, is Brian Bastarache. Many thanks to Brian, even though I suspect he derived sinister pleasure by requiring us to make multiple chilly, soggy night trips into the dark swamps before allowing us to find the Blue-spot.

Robbie Cairl also led us to vernal pools that produced good results for which we thank him. 

As a result of the efforts of these good people, we're happy to say we found all the species of New England, and can now share with you a look into the lives of these shy creatures. 

You can watch The Salamanders of New England on the New England Forests Youtube channel.

 

 

Mudpuppy

The Forgotten Forest Primeval film event

 

There is a natural, original, old growth forest on New Hampshire's Mount Sunapee, which most people are surprised (and excited!) to learn about. Such remnant ancient forests are extremely rare in the northeast. The forest is featured in our film, "The Forgotten Forest Primeval - Rediscovering Mt Sunapee's Old Growth".

On Monday evening, June 19, 2023, a screening of the film will be the opener of the 2023 Summer Speaker series of events, part of a Newbury, NH, community cultural and educational project. Sponsored by the Center Meeting House and the Newbury Library, the program will be held at Newbury's Center Meeting House (945 Rt 103, Newbury, NH) at 7pm.

Ecologist Chris Kane, who is credited with rediscovering the Mt Sunapee primeval forest a couple decades ago (and who appears in the film), will be on hand for a Q&A session following the film.

Chris Kane at an ancient Yellow Birch

Also participating in the Q&A will be Dave Anderson, Senior Director of Education for the Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests, and Steve Russell, president of the Friends of Mount Sunapee. Both also appear in the film, and are avid, knowledgeable spokesmen for the state's exemplary Mt. Sunapee forest. 

Yours truly (Ray Asselin) will be there as well for the Q&A, although I take a back seat to Chris, Dave, and Steve.

 

Dave Anderson beside old sugar maple

 

 

Steve Russell at a large white ash tree

The Mt Sunapee old forest is situated on rugged terrain, and can be a rather arduous and treacherous destination for casual hikers to climb to. The film will take you to see the best of it, from a storm-battered, stunted beech grove on the summit, to the mid-slope stands of grand old yellow birch, sugar maple, and ash.

And you'll have access to the three experts who are most knowledgeable about the background story of this forest, as well as its contents... all eager to answer your questions. Do take advantage of this opportunity!

 

The event is free and open to the public.

For more info, see Friends of Mt Sunapee's website.

 

Note: some publicity articles state that the event will be held at the Newbury Veterans Hall, but the venue has been changed to the Center Meeting House.

"Beaver Pond Wildlife Part 3" film screening

 

Beaver Pond Wildlife Part 3 - Early Summer will be shown on Thursday evening, June 8, 2023, at the Simsbury Grange hall in West Simsbury, CT. This event is the third in a 5-part series of films showcasing the great array of wild animal and plant life found at New England's many beaver ponds. 

The films are scheduled to coincide with what you can expect to see at northeastern beaver ponds at that time of the year. Each contains scenes that probably most people have never witnessed.

Mink in beaver pond

 

In Part 3, we'll finally see that red-shouldered hawk we heard calling in Part 2. We'll go underwater to see how a number of intriguing creatures live, such as the larval stage of dragonflies, and many others. The significance of adult dragonflies in the lives of birds will be revealed. Rare footage will give insight to some surprising bullfrog behaviors- thought you knew what they eat? Well, brace yourself. We'll see closeups of how beavers maintain the dam. A mink is on the hunt. Otters prowl the pond. And much more.

 

Redwing blackbird harasses Red-shouldered hawk

 

There will be a Q&A session with filmmaker Ray Asselin following each film.

Parts 4 and 5 will cover late summer to winter, and are scheduled for September 14, and November 19, respectively. 

The events will be held at the Simsbury Grange hall, 236 Farms Village Rd, W. Simsbury, CT.  Doors open at 6:00 for socializing. 

Admission is free, but donations are appreciated.

Pre-register at the Simsbury Library website.

 

 

 

 

"Beaver Pond Wildlife: Part 2" film event

Beaver feeding on shore

 

 

Beaver Pond Wildlife Part 2 - Late Spring will be shown on Thursday evening, May 25, 2023, at the Simsbury Grange hall in West Simsbury, CT. This event is the second in a 5-part series of films showcasing the great array of wild animal and plant life found at New England's many beaver ponds. 

Beaver populations have rebounded nicely since being extirpated from the northeast in the 1700's due to trapping and forest clearing. It's now possible for virtually any New Englander to visit a beaver pond. This series documents much of what can be found there over a year's time.

The films are scheduled to coincide with what you can expect to see at northeastern beaver ponds at that time of the year. Each contains scenes that probably most people have never witnessed.

There will be a Q&A session with filmmaker Ray Asselin following each film.

Parts 3 through 5 progress chronologically through early summer to winter, and are scheduled for the following Thursday evenings: June 8, September 14, and November 19, respectively. 

The events will be held at the Simsbury Grange hall, 236 Farms Village Rd, W. Simsbury, CT.  Doors open at 6:00 for socializing. 

Admission is free, but donations are appreciated.

Pre-register at the Simsbury Library website.

 

Dragonfly emerging from exoskeleton

 

Beaver Pond Wildlife Film Series Presentation

Beaver lodge

Few wildlife species are more intriguing, and none has a greater ability to alter and create habitat than that iconic keystone species, the beaver. This unassuming mammal goes about its daily life setting up and maintaining its homestead, all the while creating aquatic and terrestrial conditions that so many other creatures rely on.

The Simsbury (CT) Grange, in partnership with the Simsbury Public Library, is featuring our 5-part "Beaver Pond Wildlife" film series in 2023. The films document the lives of the multitude of species typically found in, on, and around northeastern beaver ponds, season by season. Each film is about one hour long.

The films will be scheduled to coincide with what you can expect to see at northeastern beaver ponds at that time of the year. Each contains scenes that probably most people have never witnessed.

There will be a Q&A session with filmmaker Ray Asselin following each film.

"Part 1 - Early Spring" will be presented on Earth Day, Saturday, April 22, 2023, at 7:00 pm. We'll see migrating birds arriving at beaver ponds to stake out nesting territories, including warblers, songbirds, swallows, ducks, geese, herons, ospreys, and more. A variety of mammals, amphibians, fish, and reptiles are part of the mix too, such as beavers (of course), muskrats, deer, fisher, bobcat, otters, weasels, opossum, coyote, skunk; frogs, turtles, toads, and newts; and bald eagles as well.

Parts 2 through 5 progress chronologically through late spring to winter, and are scheduled for the following Thursday evenings: May 25, June 8, September 14, and November 19, respectively. 

The events will be held at the Simsbury Grange hall, 236 Farms Village Rd, W. Simsbury, CT. The hall, nearly a century old, has a charming atmosphere, complete with a traditional wooden floor. Admission is free, but donations are appreciated.

Pre-register at the Simsbury Library website.

"Lost Forests of New England" film in Newtown, CT

 

 Blackgum Trees, ca 500 years old

Newtown, CT, celebrates Earth Day, and this year they're featuring a documentary film festival. To launch the festival, they've chosen to present our old-growth forest film The Lost Forests of New England on Thursday, April 20, 2023. 

The film depicts what our primeval central New England forests looked like before European settlement 400 years ago, and what their status is today.

The agricultural phenomenon known as "sheep fever," which was responsible for rapid wholesale clearing of our original central New England forests, is described by noted ecologist and author Tom Wessels. Harvard Forest scientists David Foster, David Orwig, and Neil Pederson are also featured in the film, as are Tony D'Amato (University of Vermont), Peter Dunwiddie (University of Washington, formerly with MA Audubon), and Joan Maloof (founder of the Old Growth Forest Network). Old-growth forest expert Bob Leverett ties the story together, having played a central role in the discovery and documentation of many remnant old growth stands.
 

Old-growth Yellow Birch

Following the screening, there will be a Q&A session with filmmaker Ray Asselin, and Susan Masino, who is a Professor of Applied Science at Trinity College and the Hartford County Coordinator for the Old Growth Forest Network.

The event will be held in the Alexandria Room of the historic Edmond Town Hall at 7pm. Admission is free and open to the public.

Primitive Tribe Found in Adirondack Forest

 
Scientists examining new images from a satellite equipped with sophisticated imaging technology noticed something very peculiar deep in the primeval Adirondack forest. 

 

 

The satellite, which employs ultra-high-resolution cameras, lidar, ground penetrating radar, and geo-compression detection hardware, revealed what seemed to be faint remains of an ancient footpath from South America all the way to the heart of what is now the United States. One branch led to the Adirondacks, where there appeared to be a tiny, unknown human settlement in pristine old growth forest. A team of researchers, led by geoscientists Ivan Aufilich and Brad Naylor, was quickly sent to the site to learn more. What they found is just astonishing, to say the least. 

In an interview, Auphilich related "It was a long, tiring slog into the remote area, and I couldn't believe my own eyes! Deep in a remote mountain gorge, among swamplands and ancient, gnarled trees, we rather suddenly came upon a small, primitive group of short-statured, self-reliant people."

Despite the language barrier, the researchers learned the reclusive tribe survives in the forest mostly on foraged foods, including such arcane things as yew tubers, whyng nuts, rhode apples, nowun leaves, chuck berries, and Sauer grapes. They even raise diminutive Zy goats for meat, milk, and sei cheese, all of which they typically eat with kowch potatoes.   

Auphilich said "This is truly unbelievable, and anyone who does believe it is an April Fool !".

 

😯

The Eagle Has Landed .. And It's Dying!

What's the connection between rats and our national symbol, the bald eagle? Unfortunately, it's a deadly one, for both the rodents and eagles. 

There have been a number of cases of eagles (and other species) consuming mice and rats that had been poisoned with rodenticides. An eagle, having eaten a dead or dying poisoned rodent, thereby becomes poisoned.

A few days ago, an adult female bald eagle known as "MK" (from her leg band id) was found on the ground in an Arlington, MA, cemetery. 

"MK", poisoned bald eagle

While MK floundered on the ground, unable to fly, her mate "KZ" watched from treetops above. The pair is well known by the eagle-watching public, who see them in the Boston area Mystic River watershed.

A group of rescuers led by wildlife rehabilitator Linda Amato and expert tree climber Andrew Joslin, captured the sickened bird, which was rushed to New England Wildlife Center's Cape Wildlife Center in Barnstable, MA.

The diagnosis: MK had likely ingested a second-generation anticoagulant rodenticide (SGAR). These poisons prevent blood from clotting, causing victims to bleed internally; they then either bleed to death or become too weak to eat, and starve.

 

MK in 2021 (© PS Joyce)

Linda Amato & MK (© Andrew Joslin)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The staff at Cape Wildlife Center worked diligently to stabilize MK and bring her back to health, which would probably take months if successful. 

 

(Cape Wildlife Center photo)

 

MK (Cape Wildlife Center photo)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

But sadly, the rat poison damage was devastating, and MK died not long after arriving at the wildlife hospital. 

Cape Wildlife Center posted this statement (3/1/23) on their Facebook page:

"We will know more when the diagnostics come back, but it appears she (MK) spontaneously hemorrhaged and began bleeding internally. With the poison in her system she did not have the ability to clot and the bleeding was catastrophic and began to occlude her airway.

Our veterinary team was by her side when it happened and was able to quickly clear her airway and intubate her, provide emergency drugs and fluids as her heart rate slowed, and eventually worked to do compressions to revive her. Sadly it was not enough to bring her back. She was gone in a matter of minutes.

It was always hard to watch a patient in this condition, but MK was particularly devastating. We know how well loved she is here in the Baystate and how many people her presence inspired to connect with our natural environments and the wildlife in them. We hope her case will serve as a true wake up call for people to stop using SGARS, and will ultimately lead to true systemic change. It is time to restrict the use of these poisons. Rodent control does not need to come at the expense of our natural heritage and ecosystem.

We want to sincerely thank everyone who has shared their concern, kind words, and worked to get MK help. Our hearts go out to KZ and all of the people who loved her."

    

What can be done?  

These SGAR rodenticides are used in "bait boxes" that can often be seen placed around commercial buildings to kill rodents. Poisoned rodents are far too often subsequently eaten by mammals, and raptors such as eagles, owls, and hawks, who are then poisoned, and often die. Use of these poisons should be banned. 

 

There are two Massachusetts bills you can support: HD 577 and SD1144 sponsored by Representative Hawkins and Senator Feeney. Read more about these bills at the MSPCA website. 

Here is a photo of Andrew Joslin holding a barred owl that was poisoned by consuming a rodent that had eaten rodenticide. The owl, named "Owen", was captured near Faneuil Hall in Boston and treated by Erin Parsons Hutchings at the Cape Ann Wildlife Center in Gloucester, MA. 

 

Andrew Joslin  (© Erin Parsons Hutchings)

 

 

A look back

Jim Joyce and his wife Patty are eagle enthusiasts from eastern Massachusetts who have watched and photographed MK and KZ over the years. They were kind enough to share some photos and information about the eagle pair:

• April, 2016: MK was hatched in Waltham, MA, along the Charles River.
• Fall 2016: she left the area and flew as far south as Delaware for the 1st year.
• 2018: returned to the Mystic River Watershed.
• 2020: MK and KZ (hatched 2015, Webster MA) became a mated pair, nested along the lower Mystic Lake. The first year nest resulted in a
  failed hatch as an intruding male bald eagle from NY disturbed the nest, eggs, and chicks. 
• 2021: MK and KZ nested in a new location. They hatched eaglets "25C" and "26C" in April.  25C died from SGAR poisoning 3 weeks after it fledged. 26C
  left the area in the fall and made it as far as Delaware, where it was killed in a vehicle strike.
• 2022: MK and KZ hatched 2 eaglets "29C" and "46C" in April. Both eaglets successfully fledged and dispersed in September, 2022. 29C was found with an injured leg and required euthanasia. 46C is still flying.
• 2023: MK and KZ are in the middle of their mating period when MK is poisoned and dies. KZ is still in the area and under watch for possible rodenticide poisoning.

 

MK, KZ - 2021 (© PS Joyce)

 

 

MK, 46C, 29C - 2022 (© Jim Joyce)

 

 

 

 

 

 

MK in flight (© Jim Joyce)

Stars on the Forest Floor

 On a recent late-January hike, Deb and I encountered something we hadn't seen before. Nothing new about that, happens all the time. But, it was an intriguing mystery.

There were a number of small puffball mushrooms on the ground under some small white pines. That's nothing particularly unusual or surprising. But each one was sitting perfectly centered on what appeared to be the dried bracts of some kind of plant. And these things were all just sitting on the surface, not connected to the ground or anything else; it was as if they had fallen from a tree, like the remains of a peculiar flower structure. 

I was thoroughly mystified. 

So I texted a photo of them to biologist friend Al and asked if he knew what these things were. And, of course, he did, although he's only seen them a couple times. They're "earth stars", a kind of puffball mushroom. So, to the all-knowing web I went.

These puffballs typically grow below, or partially below, the surface of the ground. When they mature, their outer cover layer (the outer "peridium") splits into several "rays" (like a banana peel), which spread open and curl down toward the ground (as in the first photo). When they contact the ground and continue to curl, they lift the inner puffball spore sac a bit above the surface. That exposes the spore sac to raindrops that puff the spores out into the breezes, thereby dispersing them. 

The second photo shows an unopened earth star (of which there are many species), before the outer peridium has split.

Photo by Lukas- London,England. CC BY-SA 2.0 Wikimedia Commons

When the mushroom has matured and opened, its former connection to mycelium in the ground breaks down, and the mushroom is now free to be blown around per the vagaries of the wind, spreading spores hither and yon. It would seem that these should be much more common, but several people have told me they've only encountered them once or twice. And they may not be found in the same place you first find them.

The third photo shows the underside of one of the earth stars, and the top side of another.

Nature has added a clever method of getting most of the spores out of some species of the earth star puffball. When raindrops or other things hit a puffball spore sac, the pressure squeezes out a little cloud of spores; that's what typically happens with all puffball mushrooms. But here's the added trick that some earth stars have... if an opened earth star becomes dry, the outer peridium "flaps" will close back up over the spore sac, squeezing it and forcing out more spores, until moisture reopens them. Repeated cycles of moist and dry conditions continue to help the puffball eject its spores.

The last photo shows previously-opened earth stars that dried out in my car overnight and closed back up. I re-moistened them by putting them on a damp paper towel, and they quickly opened right back up.

 

Earth stars are mycorrhizal, a type of fungus that interacts with the roots of many, many kinds of plants, including trees. The fungus, with its vast underground web of mycelium, is very efficient at taking up minerals and other nutrients from the soil. Phosphorous, in particular, is not readily soluble in the soil, yet is important to many plants. Mycorrhizal fungi can take up the phosphorous and deliver it to plants. The hyphae that make up the mycelium are much thinner than plant roots, and can get into more tiny spaces than roots can.

Since the fungus cannot photosynthesize like green plants do, it can't obtain the carbon it needs from the air (from CO2). That's where the plants whose roots it associates with fulfill their part of the symbiosis. The plants supply sugars to the fungus in exchange for the nutrients they get from the fungus. Both parties benefit. In fact, mycorrhizal plants can fare much better when connected to the fungal network. Some cannot continue to exist without it; orchids, for example, must have a mycorrhizal fungus relationship to germinate their tiny seeds.

So, when you're walking in the late-fall or early-winter woods, you don't have to look up to the sky to see the stars... you just might find some right at your feet.